Distributed for Hong Kong University Press
The Heart Sutra
Revisiting Its Texts, History, and Meaning
A nuanced reconsideration of the Heart Sūtra, one of the most celebrated and widely chanted texts in Mahayana Buddhism.
The Heart Sūtra, one of the most significant texts in Mahayana Buddhism, has been recited daily by monastics across numerous countries for centuries. This monograph critically examines the contentious claim that the Heart Sūtra is a Chinese text of doubtful authenticity, analyzing how these kinds of works are understood in Christian traditions, Chinese Buddhist catalogs, and modern Western academic discourse. Delving into the cultural, historical, and religious factors that influenced other versions of the Heart Sūtra, it offers new insights into the text’s development. This book will appeal to scholars and graduate students in Buddhist studies, as well as practitioners of Mahayana Buddhism seeking to deepen their understanding of this foundational text.
The Heart Sūtra, one of the most significant texts in Mahayana Buddhism, has been recited daily by monastics across numerous countries for centuries. This monograph critically examines the contentious claim that the Heart Sūtra is a Chinese text of doubtful authenticity, analyzing how these kinds of works are understood in Christian traditions, Chinese Buddhist catalogs, and modern Western academic discourse. Delving into the cultural, historical, and religious factors that influenced other versions of the Heart Sūtra, it offers new insights into the text’s development. This book will appeal to scholars and graduate students in Buddhist studies, as well as practitioners of Mahayana Buddhism seeking to deepen their understanding of this foundational text.
292 pages | 6 x 9 | © 2026
Religion: Philosophy of Religion, Theology, and Ethics, Religion and Society
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Table of Contents
The Heart Sutra (An English Translation of Xuanzang’s Version) viii
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xii
Abbreviations xiv
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1.1. The Reception of the Heart Sutra 1
1.2. The Theory of the Heart Sutra as a ‘Chinese Apocryphal Text’ 6
1.2.1. Jan Nattier 6
1.2.2. Shì Huìfeng 9
1.2.3. Jayarava Attwood 10
1.3. Reactions in the Japanese Academia 11
1.3.1. Fukui Fumimasa 12
1.3.2. Harada Waso 15
1.3.3. Ishii Kosei 16
1.3.4. Saito Akira 18
1.3.5. Watanabe Shogo 19
1.3.6. Contributions of Japanese Scholars 20
1.4. Chinese Scholarship 21
1.4.1. Shen Jiucheng 21
1.4.2. Ji Yun 23
1.4.3. Fang Guangchang 24
1.5. On the Term ‘Apocrypha’ 25
1.5.1. The Meaning of ‘Apocrypha’ in Christian Circles 26
1.5.2. The Criteria for Buddhist Apocrypha Within Buddhist
Traditions 27
1.5.3. The Notion of ‘Buddhist Apocrypha’ in Relation to Indology 32
1.5.4. Sanskrit Editions of the Heart Sutra 37
1.6. Conclusion 41
Chapter 2. Philological Examination 45
2.1. Uncertainties Regarding the Phrase ‘Traversed All Suffering
and Woes’ 45
2.2. The Five Aggregates and Emptiness 50
2.3. ‘su¯nyata-lak?a?a’ and ‘sunyata-alak?a?a’ 54
2.4. What Is Being Negated? 57
2.5. No Attainment and Bodhisattvahood 61
2.6. Genuine Mantra 66
Chapter 3. Historical Investigation 70
3.1. Xuanzang’s Role in ‘Translating’ the Heart Sutra from Sanskrit 70
3.2. Intersections of Divine Resonance 82
3.3. Journey to the West 96
3.4. A New Theory on the Origins of the Heart Sutra 110
Chapter 4. Dharmalogical Reflection 127
4.1. Interpretative Approach 127
4.2. On the Title of the Heart Sutra 132
4.2.1. Delving into the Concept of ‘Heart’ in the Heart Sutra 132
4.2.2. The Interplay of ‘Heart’ and ‘Dhara?i’ 137
4.2.3. The ‘Dhara?i Gate of Forty-Two Syllables’ in the
Prajñaparamita-sutra 141
4.2.4. Interpreting the ‘Heart’ of the Heart Sutra Through
Chiasmus 151
4.3. Who Has Traversed All Suffering and Woes? 152
4.4. Revisiting the Six Statements on Form and Emptiness 164
4.5. The Eight Aspects and the Three Gates of Liberation 179
4.6. Dispelling Obstructions in Sequence 186
4.7. On ‘No Attainment’ and ‘Mental Hindrances’ 194
4.8. Prajña¯pa¯ramita as Vidya 199
Chapter 5. Conclusion 206
Appendix 1. Corresponding Prajñaparamita-sutras in Sanskrit and Their
Chinese and Tibetan Translations 209
Appendix 2. The Chinese Translations of the Heart Sutra from Sanskrit
and Tibetan Sources 222
6.1. Part I. Translations from Sanskrit into Chinese 222
6.2. Part II. Translations from Tibetan into Chinese 241
Selected Bibliography 261
Index 271
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xii
Abbreviations xiv
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1.1. The Reception of the Heart Sutra 1
1.2. The Theory of the Heart Sutra as a ‘Chinese Apocryphal Text’ 6
1.2.1. Jan Nattier 6
1.2.2. Shì Huìfeng 9
1.2.3. Jayarava Attwood 10
1.3. Reactions in the Japanese Academia 11
1.3.1. Fukui Fumimasa 12
1.3.2. Harada Waso 15
1.3.3. Ishii Kosei 16
1.3.4. Saito Akira 18
1.3.5. Watanabe Shogo 19
1.3.6. Contributions of Japanese Scholars 20
1.4. Chinese Scholarship 21
1.4.1. Shen Jiucheng 21
1.4.2. Ji Yun 23
1.4.3. Fang Guangchang 24
1.5. On the Term ‘Apocrypha’ 25
1.5.1. The Meaning of ‘Apocrypha’ in Christian Circles 26
1.5.2. The Criteria for Buddhist Apocrypha Within Buddhist
Traditions 27
1.5.3. The Notion of ‘Buddhist Apocrypha’ in Relation to Indology 32
1.5.4. Sanskrit Editions of the Heart Sutra 37
1.6. Conclusion 41
Chapter 2. Philological Examination 45
2.1. Uncertainties Regarding the Phrase ‘Traversed All Suffering
and Woes’ 45
2.2. The Five Aggregates and Emptiness 50
2.3. ‘su¯nyata-lak?a?a’ and ‘sunyata-alak?a?a’ 54
2.4. What Is Being Negated? 57
2.5. No Attainment and Bodhisattvahood 61
2.6. Genuine Mantra 66
Chapter 3. Historical Investigation 70
3.1. Xuanzang’s Role in ‘Translating’ the Heart Sutra from Sanskrit 70
3.2. Intersections of Divine Resonance 82
3.3. Journey to the West 96
3.4. A New Theory on the Origins of the Heart Sutra 110
Chapter 4. Dharmalogical Reflection 127
4.1. Interpretative Approach 127
4.2. On the Title of the Heart Sutra 132
4.2.1. Delving into the Concept of ‘Heart’ in the Heart Sutra 132
4.2.2. The Interplay of ‘Heart’ and ‘Dhara?i’ 137
4.2.3. The ‘Dhara?i Gate of Forty-Two Syllables’ in the
Prajñaparamita-sutra 141
4.2.4. Interpreting the ‘Heart’ of the Heart Sutra Through
Chiasmus 151
4.3. Who Has Traversed All Suffering and Woes? 152
4.4. Revisiting the Six Statements on Form and Emptiness 164
4.5. The Eight Aspects and the Three Gates of Liberation 179
4.6. Dispelling Obstructions in Sequence 186
4.7. On ‘No Attainment’ and ‘Mental Hindrances’ 194
4.8. Prajña¯pa¯ramita as Vidya 199
Chapter 5. Conclusion 206
Appendix 1. Corresponding Prajñaparamita-sutras in Sanskrit and Their
Chinese and Tibetan Translations 209
Appendix 2. The Chinese Translations of the Heart Sutra from Sanskrit
and Tibetan Sources 222
6.1. Part I. Translations from Sanskrit into Chinese 222
6.2. Part II. Translations from Tibetan into Chinese 241
Selected Bibliography 261
Index 271